Essay on Romantic Era Time of a New Time - 1656 Words

Romantic Era: Time of a New Time It was a time of no choice. A man was born into his class he did not have a choice of what he could do in this country. There was a class of nobility and then the class of poor. There was no sense of religious freedom you were either a follower of the church or you were a follower of the church. The church controlled the government made the laws and taught what was right and wrong and no one was allowed to question it. For the poorer class it was a time were life went by fast there was no time for imagination, thought, and even the simplest things that we today do not acknowledge at all. The neighboring countries were going into revolution creating many deaths and failing attempts. So the church, the†¦show more content†¦People began to appreciate the little things. They began to appreciate music and art as well as nature and poetry. Times began to change as people started to believe in what they want some stayed with the original version of what the churc h had taught them and dictated to them but many began to read and do their own research and were able to decide for themselves what they wanted to believe in. church and government began to become segregated. This does not mean that church did not have in government I believe till this day it still dose but this was a mark of the beginning of the segregation of the two. From these many things that people began to appreciate was one of the wonders and an appreciated art was poetry. Some of the greatest poetry ever recorded has come from this era I cannot say exactly why but I can conclude it is because this is a time people really appreciated what they were talking about because of the centuries of lack of appreciation and ability to appreciate it came out so great. Whatever the reason is the poetry was something that came from this time that will be always remembered. â€Å"The poetry of this time really appreciated and emphasized on feeling, intuition, and imagination. Others feel that it emphasizes individualism, freedom from rules, spontaneity, solitary life rather than life in society, and the love of beauty and nature. (http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_the_characteristics_of_romantic_poetry)† From these great piecesShow MoreRelatedTaking a Look at the Romantic Era1107 Words   |  4 PagesRomantic Era Romanticism was brought to life around 1780 and thinned out around 1850. During this age romantic thought and imagination was chosen over reason, emotions, logic, intuition, and science. The late 18th century was a perfect era for romanticism. During this time period it spread wildly through the countries of Europe, the United States and Latin America and touched the pens of so many writers. 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Russian Gas As A Foreign Policy Weapon - 1362 Words

With 53% of the European Union’s energy being imported in 2013, it is not a surprise that the European Union is continuously seeking alternative energy methods to help gain energy independence. If not complete independence, they hope to lower their reliance on Russia who to frequently uses its energy dominance as a foreign policy weapon. Russian and Ukrainian disputes in 2006, 2009, and 2014 have led to critical gas shortages across the European Union and a public opinion that Russian natural gas is unreliable (1). The Czech Republic has been one of the many member states who has suffered from these supply shortfalls. These crises along with other difficulties of importing a majority of their energy supply has propelled the Czech Republic†¦show more content†¦Feed-in tariffs as well as feed-in premiums supported renewable electricity generation. These rates were guaranteed for 20 years with hydropower generators’ rates being guaranteed for 30 years. 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Employee Engagement and Organizational Commitment Journal of Managem

Question: Describe about the Employee Engagement and Organizational Commitment for journal of management? Answer: Introduction Introduction to the Study The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between levels of employee engagement and organizational commitment. It should be noted that the level of organizational commitment directly reflects on the organizational benefits and performance. The study intends to address the factors that affect organizational commitment of employees. Background and Significance of the Study The reason for choosing this topic as research is to study the factors that affect the work-related outcomes. The study can be used to improve the activities of an organization to improve employee attitudes, values and behaviours. Research Questions The main research question for this paper is identified as- How management behaviour affects employee engagement and organizational commitment levels? There are other subsidiary questions that are answered in the report- What are the antecedents of organizational commitment? To what extent the management behaviours affect employee engagement and organizational commitment? Research Hypothesis Hypothesis 1- There is a positive relationship between employee engagement ad organizational commitments. Hypothesis 2- There is a positive relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Hypothesis 3- There is a positive relation between employee engagement and organizational success. Research Aims and Objectives To identify the factors affecting employee behaviours To investigate relationship between job performance, employee engagement and organizational commitment. To study the importance of motivational factors in the organization. Problem Statement The low-performance standards of some organizations are related to low satisfaction levels of employees. The morale of employee declines if their attitude and behaviour are not moving in a positive direction. Definition of Terms Employee Engagement Employee engagement is the relationship between an organization and its employees. It is the emotional commitment of an employee towards the organizational goals (Kruse, 2012). Organizational Commitment Organizational commitment is the psychological attachment of an employee towards the organization. It is a feeling of responsibility towards attaining the mission of the organization (Leviatan, 2013). Job Satisfaction Employee satisfaction or job satisfaction is defined as the satisfaction level of employees towards the different facets of his job (Hlsheger, Alberts, Feinholdt Lang, 2013). Literature Review Organizational commitment, employee behaviour and job satisfaction are related terms. These concepts are backed up by different theories explained as under. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) is the behaviour of employees exhibited in an organization. The behaviour normally involves volunteering, helping others, meeting deadlines and innovating. These behaviours are represented by five dimensions of OCB- altruism, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, courtesy and civic virtue (Salehzadeh, Shahin, Kazemi Shaemi Barzoki, 2015). In simple words, altruism means being helpful. It refers to an employee assisting other employees of the organization in their tasks. Conscientiousness refers to obeying rules, regulations, being punctual and implying a highly responsible nature. Sportsmanship refers to the willingness of tolerating difficulties in the workplace with ease and without complains. Courtesy refers to the gestures that are demonstrated by reducing problems and lessen its effects in the future. The main idea of courtesy revolves around avoiding actions that make employees work harder unnecessarily. Civic virtue refers to the constru ctive involvement in the political process of the organization (Chiang Hsieh, 2012). ABC Model of Attitude Attitude is the feelings, emotions or beliefs of an individual. It is the psychological tendency of an employee that relates to job satisfaction, organizational commitment or engagement. Attitude affects individual behaviour. There are three components of attitude: Affective, Behavioural and Cognitive component. The affective component involves the feelings or emotions of employees towards the organization. It is related to the immediate response of an employee towards a particular situation or event. The behavioural or conative component is the attitude that is influenced by or emotions or feelings. It is the reflection of the feelings or beliefs towards a situation. The cognitive component refers to the knowledge or beliefs of the employee towards the situation or event. The actions are mostly guided by cognitive component (Nelson Quick, 2013). Engagement Drivers Every organization has various features or drivers that lead to organizational success. These drivers connect all employees and help in engagement for a healthy corporate culture. A few of them are explained (Tims, Bakker, Derks van Rhenen, 2013). Trust, fairness and respect among managers, employees and partners drive the organization. Internal and external communication patterns exhibits better business results (Lipman, 2012). The organizational structure facilitating project management and team work reflects on the organizational success. The employee needs to focus on customer satisfaction. The behaviour of leaders and management affects the morale of employees. The reward and recognition system for managing performance in the organization also affects the organizational success. The quality and balance of work-life for managers and employees also affect the work performance outcomes (Bedarkar Pandita, 2014). Motivation Motivation is a source of energizing, maintaining and controlling behaviour of employees in an organization. Motivation plays an important role as it helps in capturing the employees drive for performing better (Kuvaas, Buch, Gagne Dysvik, 2015). Motivation helps the employees in looking at a better way to complete the task, be quality oriented and work with higher efficiency. Motivation can be in form of monetary benefits such as increase in basic pay, incentives, stock options and bonuses. Motivation can also be in the form of non-cash benefits such as appraisal, recognition and awards. The motivating factors directly relate to needs, emotions and cognition (Robbins Judge, 2011). Research Methodology and Analysis Method Outline The method followed to conduct research involves studying and analysing data from secondary sources. The speculative hypotheses made is analysed in the research. The research gives an idea for describing general market characteristics. Research Approach A descriptive approach is used for conducting the research. The descriptive research approach helped in providing accurate description for testing hypotheses. It also acts as a basis for decision making. However, the descriptive approach could not establish casual links (Kaliannan Adjovu, 2015). Research Design For secondary data, three published journals are selected. The three journals individually justify the three hypotheses of research. A cross-sectional design is followed for conducting research in which the information collected was from a large representative sample. It allows comparing different variables at the same time (Kaliannan Adjovu, 2015). Data Collection Process The data is collected from primary and secondary sources. Primary data was collected through in-depth interviews that helped in gaining insights, feelings and beliefs of participants. The secondary data was collected from published journals. The academic journal widens the scope of research with qualitative as well as quantitative data (Kaliannan Adjovu, 2015). Sampling Method and Size For primary data, the sample size is chosen to be 25 respondents. In-depth interview was conducted for acquiring qualitative data. For testing the first hypotheses, the population is selected as frontline employees at Jordan for the banking sector. Questionnaires were administered for a sample size of 336 participants, out of which 322 participants responded (Albdour Altarawneh, 2014). For testing the second hypotheses, survey questionnaires were developed. A sample size of 950 people at university hospitals in Isfahan city was selected, out of 814 people responded (Mosadeghrad Ferdosi, 2013). For the third hypotheses, a case study of the Mobile Telecommunication Network, Ghana was selected. 137 people responded for carrying out a quantitative analysis (Kaliannan Adjovu, 2015). Ethical Consideration The respondents for primary data collection through in-depth interviews were not forced into participation. Confidentiality of names and contact details are maintained throughout the research process and analysis. Limitations of the study The main limitation was less availability of time. The time constraint limited the primary data research process and major focus is laid on secondary data. The secondary data has a risk of biases and incompleteness. Certain trouble was also faced for encoding the written documents as it lacks standardization. Results and Analysis The profile of respondents from primary data is shown in Table 1. Count Percentage Organization A 10 40% B 8 32% C 7 28% Age 30 or younger 18 72% 31-50 5 20% 51 or older 2 8% Job Position Employee 22 88% Manager 3 12% Table 1: Profile of Respondents for Primary Research As per the data collected through in-depth interview, qualitative data was obtained. I looked for four direct answers aimed to engagement such as: I am proud to work at company X; I am extremely satisfied to work at Company X; I would recommend Company X to a friend or family gladly; and I am looking for a new job with another company. It was not possible to get the results as desired but through deductive analysis than 60% of the employees was highly satisfied to work at the respective companies. 20% of the employees had neutral answers and the satisfaction level could not be determined. 12% of the employees would gladly recommend the companies to friends or family. 8% employees were looking to join another organization. For analysing the positive relationship between employee engagement and organizational commitment, the following profile of respondents at Jordans banking sector was analysed. Bank Type Working in Conventional Banks 74.5% Jordanian Islamic banks 18.7% Foreign Banks 6.8% Gender Males 68% Females 32% Relationship Status Single 38.8% Married 61.2% Age 25 years or younger 19% 25-30 years 36.1% 31-4. years 30.3% 41-50 years 13.3% 51 or above 1.4% Table 2: Profile of Respondents at Jordan A multiple regression analysis was performance to determine the relationship between employee engagement and organizational commitment. According to the beta values, the results reveal that organizational commitment ( = 0.305) is followed by job engagement ( = 0.290). The results of this study show that employee engagement is highly related to components of attitude- affective, behavioural and cognitive. The normative commitment in employees was stronger than continuance and affective commitment. The results suggest that the employees with higher engagement level tend to have greater affective commitment. The employees holding positive attitude towards the organization showed higher level of organizational commitment (Albdour Altarawneh, 2014). For analysing the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment, stratified random sampling was done by administering questionnaires to 814 people. The respondent profile is shown in Table 3. Count Percentage Employee Level First line managers 127 15.6% middle managers 11 1.35% Senior Managers 11 1.35% Employees 665 81.7% Gender Male 394 48.4% Female 420 51.6% Table 3: Profile of Respondents at Isfahan According to the mean scores of organizational commitment of employees relating to job satisfaction had a moderate score of 6. The organizational commitment score was determined as 3.97 for first line managers, 4.7 for middle and 4.12 for senior managers. The overall employees were satisfied with their jobs as the motivational factors and other characteristics such as salaries, fringe benefits, promotion, working conditions, supervision and nature of job was strong. The mean score of job factors was accounted as 4.39 and organizational factors of 3.05 out of 6 respectively. The study revealed a positive relation between organizational commitment and job satisfaction. The study revealed that satisfied employees had higher level of organizational commitment (Mosadeghrad Ferdosi, 2013). For analysing the relationship between employee engagement and organizational success, telecommunication giant at Ghana was analysed. The study measures indicators of effective employment engagement strategies towards organizational success. The survey was conducted for obtaining agreeableness of employees regarding various indicators of employee engagement. The Pearson correlation coefficient in the survey revealed a mean of 1.710 for having a positive relation towards their job (Kaliannan Adjovu, 2015). The result for agreeableness is shown in Table 4. Effective employee engagement strategies % Agreed HRM Practices 91.4% Organizational Culture 84.4% Job Satisfaction 87.9 Work Environment 86.9% Employee-Supervisor Relationship 86.3% Total Employee Engagement 88% Table 4: Findings at Ghana From the above research and analyses, the hypotheses assumed for the research is justified. There is a positive relation between employee engagement, organizational commitment, performance outcomes and organizational success. Discussion The above study reveals that there is a positive relationship between employee engagement and organizational commitment, employee engagement and organizational success and job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The overall findings have highlighted the importance of motivational factors such as promotion, nature of work, working conditions and various other factors. It can be inferred that the employees who are not satisfied with their job status or salary, have an intention of turnover. Employee satisfaction is highly influenced by job status (Andrew Sofian, 2012). It is also inferred that if the employees are loyal to their managers, they would have a psychological attachment and would be willing to stay in the organization. On the contrary, the employees who have less commitment towards the organization are more likely to look for jobs in another organization. The employees must be given growth opportunities so that there is harmony and efficiency in the organization (Truss, Shantz, Soane, Alfes Delbridge, 2013). The findings suggest the need for an employee-oriented environment in the organization. The employees prefer a working environment that has a healthy work environment with high motivational factors. Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusion This study examined the relationship between job satisfaction, employee engagement and organizational commitment. The effect of the above factors is directly linked with work performance outcomes. A satisfied employee is likely to highly engage and volunteer in the organizational activities. The motivational factors keep the morale of the employees high that keeps them involved as well as committed towards the mission of organization. Several recommendations have been proposed related to human resource and management practices (Menguc, Auh, Fisher Haddad, 2013). Recommendations The organizations can consider revising their performance management system by introducing performance or sales based incentives (Mone London, 2011). This would help them in increasing their purchasing power, reducing burdens and fulfilling their needs. Employees need to be given promotion or growth opportunities so that they can enhance their skills. The organizations must provide encouragement and support to the employees so that their morale is high (Armstrong Armstrong, 2011). Future scope of the study This paper aims to provide a basis for expertise in employee behaviour and the factors that matter to them. The paper lays emphasis on both individual behaviour as well as superior-subordinate relationship. In the current world, autocracy is not recommended. It is the responsibility of the managers to keep their employees satisfied. The paper serves as a study for managers regarding how to get their work done while a maintaining a positive atmosphere in the organization (Huang et al., 2015). References Albdour, A., Altarawneh, I. (2014). Employee Engagement and Organizational Commitment: Evidence from Jordan.INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS,19(2). Retrieved from https://www.craig.csufresno.edu/ijb/Volumes/Volume%2019/V192-5.pdf Andrew, O., Sofian, S. (2012). Individual Factors and Work Outcomes of Employee Engagement.Procedia - Social And Behavioral Sciences,40, 498-508. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.03.222 Armstrong, M., Armstrong, M. (2011).Armstrong's handbook of strategic human resource management. London: Kogan Page. Bedarkar, M., Pandita, D. (2014). A Study on the Drivers of Employee Engagement Impacting Employee Performance.Procedia - Social And Behavioral Sciences,133, 106-115. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.04.174 Chiang, C., Hsieh, T. (2012). The impacts of perceived organizational support and psychological empowerment on job performance: The mediating effects of organizational citizenship behavior.International Journal Of Hospitality Management,31(1), 180-190. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.04.011 Huang, Y., Lee, J., McFadden, A., Murphy, L., Robertson, M., Cheung, J., Zohar, D. (2015). Beyond safety outcomes: An investigation of the impact of safety climate on job satisfaction, employee engagement and turnover using social exchange theory as the theoretical framework.Applied Ergonomics. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2015.10.007 Hlsheger, U., Alberts, H., Feinholdt, A., Lang, J. (2013). Benefits of mindfulness at work: The role of mindfulness in emotion regulation, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction.Journal Of Applied Psychology,98(2), 310-325. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0031313 Kaliannan, M., Adjovu, S. (2015). Effective Employee Engagement and Organizational Success: A Case Study.Procedia - Social And Behavioral Sciences,172, 161-168. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.350 Kruse, K. (2012).Forbes Welcome.Forbes.com. Retrieved 25 February 2016, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/kevinkruse/2012/06/22/employee-engagement-what-and-why/ Kuvaas, B., Buch, R., Gagne, M., Dysvik, A. (2015). "Do You Get What You Pay For? Sales Incentives, Motivation, and Employee Outcomes".Academy Of Management Proceedings,2015(1), 11440-11440. https://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2015.11440abstract Leviatan, U. (2013). Values and Organizational Commitment.International Critical Thought,3(3), 315-331. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21598282.2013.818091 Lipman, V. (2012).Forbes Welcome.Forbes.com. Retrieved 25 February 2016, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/victorlipman/2012/12/14/study-explores-drivers-of-employee-engagement/2/#6354f21e1fa1 Menguc, B., Auh, S., Fisher, M., Haddad, A. (2013). To be engaged or not to be engaged: The antecedents and consequences of service employee engagement.Journal Of Business Research,66(11), 2163-2170. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2012.01.007 Mone, E., London, M. (2011).Employee engagement through effective performance management. New York: Routledge/Taylor Francis Group. Mosadeghrad, A., Ferdosi, M. (2013). Leadership, Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment in Healthcare Sector: Proposing and Testing a Model.Mat Soc Med,25(2), 121. https://dx.doi.org/10.5455/msm.2013.25.121-126 Nelson, D., Quick, J. (2013).Organizational behavior. Mason, OH, USA: South-Western Cengage Learning. Robbins, S., Judge, T. (2011).Organizational behavior. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Salehzadeh, R., Shahin, A., Kazemi, A., Shaemi Barzoki, A. (2015). Is organizational citizenship behavior an attractive behavior for managers? A Kano model approach.Journal Of Mgmt Development,34(5), 601-620. https://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jmd-09-2013-0114 Tims, M., Bakker, A., Derks, D., van Rhenen, W. (2013). Job Crafting at the Team and Individual Level: Implications for Work Engagement and Performance.Group Organization Management,38(4), 427-454. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1059601113492421 Truss, C., Shantz, A., Soane, E., Alfes, K., Delbridge, R. (2013). Employee engagement, organisational performance and individual well-being: exploring the evidence, developing the theory.The International Journal Of Human Resource Management,24(14), 2657-2669. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.798921

The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man Essay Example

The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man Essay The indefinite status accorded James Weldon Johnsons The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man (1912) is, to a great extent, attributable to its standing as the first fictional text written by an African American that deliberately masks its genre. The confessional frame is a guise, self-consciously employed by Johnson to authenticate the main characters story, strategically to give the text the appearance of an autobiography. From the onset, the narrative co-mingles genres; like its racially hybrid narrator, the text itself is a kind of narrative message. Moreover, Johnson represents a fictional anti-hero, a black man who chooses to pass for a white man who need not negotiate the hardships of race relations in America. As a consequence, The Autobiography is a thematic departure from its autobiographical predecessors, Booker T. Washingtons â€Å"Up from Slavery† (1901) and W. E. B. Du Boiss â€Å"The Souls of Black Folk† (1903). It also departs from traditional narrative representations of passing such as those found in the late 19th-century novels of Frances Harper and Charles Chesnutt. Still, Johnson was a publicly acclaimed race man. The intrigue of his formal variations is that he knowingly wrote such hybrid anathema in the highly charged racial climate of a rabidly Jim Crow era. The narrative line of The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man, then, as a result of what might be considered the works contending forces, operates along several discursive lines, including a false fictional representation of the narrator, Johnsons own political reflections and theories and signifying riffs on conventions from the books literary ancestors. We will write a custom essay sample on The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Themes such as black uplift, racial pride, and social responsibilityborrowed from antedating black autobiographical and fictional worksclash with the ideological position that the narrator must espouse to justify his own politically charged identity choices. The Autobiographys manifold positions create a writerly tension that is inherent and identifiable in the text, a tension that serves, finally, to undermine the integrity of the first-person narrative voice. Clearly, Johnsons ability to conjure and craft his anti-heroic protagonist is thwarted by historical circumstances surrounding his writing and by his own political sensibilities. The socio-historical circumstances framing Johnsons act of writing, principally the struggle for black enfranchisement, plainly conflict with the narrators portraiture. Although conventions of form would seem predisposed to a close subjective connection between the author and the narrator, the narrative occasion of Johnsons endeavor is such that the views upheld by the narrator are often radically divergent from those of his creator. Johnson, then, is writing out of what Houston A. Baker, Jr. , in Turning South Again (2001), has termed a tight place: Tight places are constituted by the necessity to articulate from a position that combines specters of humiliation (slavery), multiple subjects and signifiers, figurative obligations of race in America (to speak Negro or for Negroes†), and patent sex and gender implications. At the center of Bakers theoretical formulations is the notion that the black male subject at the turn into the twentieth century is always already framed in relation to the dominant white social structure and thus affirms, subverts, or at least navigates through a social arrangement marked by domination and defeat, the white publics network of opinions and desires, and the always undecided cultural compromises of occupancy and desire: Who moves? Who doesnt? still, the early 20th-century textual black subject is also located within what Claudia Tate describes as a firmly entrenched black male heroic liberation dialogue, the contours of which shape another kind of tight space, one in which there tacitly exist agreed upon rules governing black male subjectivity and its literary representation within the black public sphere. We might say, then, that Johnson writes out of a doubly determined tight space. The aforementioned withstanding, it is curious that Johnson would embark upon the n arrative experiment that is The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man in such a vexed environment. Why did he engage such risky genre crossing business at precisely what the black historian Rayford Logan calls the lowest point of Jim Crow racism in America? Passing for White, Passing for Man, the impetus fueling Johnsons narrative experiment seems clearer if one summons to view the African American male writerly tradition. In his own autobiography â€Å"Along This Way, Johnson maintains that he expected that the title The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man would immediately reveal the works ironic inflections and unspoken relationship to prevailing discourses on black male subjectivity. He writes: When I chose the title, it was without the slightest doubt that its meaning would be perfectly clear to anyone. Although Johnsons ironic title borders on satire, the discursive subversion marked by satire is meaningless without a clear contextualization of the black male literary enterprise upon which satire would, as it were, signify. The scholar William Andrews has provided the most astute account available of this enterprise. He asserts that in the African American novel, at the turn into the twentieth century, the leading characters almost always have a choice between self-interest and self-sacrifice in the name of uplifting the race. Generally, the choice is in favor of the latter. Johnsons text reverses the norms of the dilemma described by Andrews. His narrator chooses self-interest. As such, while other works reveal the heros growing racial awareness, Johnsons Autobiography plots the anti-heros movement toward racial disengagement. In brief, Johnsons representation of the first-person narrator invokes the myth of the heroic black malethen inverts it. Within the context of an already established African American male protest tradition that links the proud display of masculinity with the struggle for racial justice, Johnsons narrator invites criticism as a failed race man and a failed man, for he has chosen to passa choice that symbolizes synonymous rejection of both social equality and masculine pride. To locate The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man vis-a-vis the thematic and formal expectations framing its production, it is useful to elaborate Tates formulation of the black heroic liberation discursive project. Even before Du Bois theorized the emasculation of black men as an ease of slavery, speaking as he did of the red stain of â€Å"bastardy, and the twin evils of segregation and poverty, Frederick Douglass had already discursively connected racial oppression and black emasculation. His famous statement, You have seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man, at once fore-grounded both the emasculating character of slavery and its reversal. Douglasss assertion of physical strength and defiance in which he throttles the slave breaker Covey, the man to whom he has been hired out to be broken, revived within [him] a sense of [his] own manhood. Black manhood is reconstituted by way of physical encounter, transmuting Douglass from a slave in fact to a slave in form alone. Du Boiss The Souls of Black Folk later yokes masculinity and racial responsibility, placing these constructs in dialectical relation to material acquisition and rugged individualism. Du Bois, speaking directly against Booker T. Washingtonian strategies for social change, says: If we make money the object of man-training, we shall develop money-makers but not necessarily men; if we make technical skill the object of our education, we may possess artisans but not, in nature, men. Men we shall have only as we make manhood the object of the work of the schools this is the curriculum of that Higher Education which must underlie true life. James Weldon Johnsons only novel, The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man, charts the restless movement of a light-skinned man across boundaries of race, class, and region in turn-of-the-century America. Johnson (1871–1938) began writing what would be his most famous work in 1905, at a moment marked by his own restlessness. Only five years earlier, Johnson had joined his brother, J. Rosamond Johnson, in New York City to write song lyrics for musical theater, leaving behind his relatively settled life in Jacksonville, Florida, as a high school principal and newspaper editor who had recently passed the state bar and was engaged to be married. The Johnsons, along with their partner Bob Cole, quickly became the most successful African American songwriting team in musical theater. But while Johnson enjoyed this success, and the influence it brought, he soon found himself craving escape and a little stillness of the spirit, as he put it in his memoir, Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson (p. 223). He enrolled in literature classes at Columbia, began writing poetry and what would become his novel, and cultivated his connections in politics. With the help of Booker T. Washington, he was appointed U. S. consul in Venezuela (1906) and Nicaragua (1909–1913), and at the latter post, he wrote the bulk of The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man and saw it published, anonymously, by the small Boston house of Sherman, French and Company in 1912. As its title suggests, The Autobiography is a first-person account of the life of a man who has disavowed his blackness, offering its readers a perspective on American race relations from one who has lived on both sides of the color line. With its authors name withheld, the works first reviewers generally took the claims of its preface, attributed to the publishers though probably written by Johnson himself, at face value: this was a work of sociological interest, offering the (presumed white) reader an authentic view of the inner life of the Negro in America (p. xl). Several black critics saw through its nonfictional guise (Jessie Fauset in The Crisis, for example, suggested it was fiction based on fact), and some southern white reviewers insisted it was fiction on the basis that a black man could never actually pass as white.